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Colonization phases England/WalesArticle Summary: This article discusses the colonization of southern Britain from the earliest hominid appearance until the end of the Mesolithic era.
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The arrival of the first hominids in Southern Britain has not been accurately determined. Reconstruction of the climatic conditions prior to oxygen isotope stage [OIS] 12 ca475- 428Ka is still in the embryonic stage and [url=http://www.jordanpascherofficiele.com]air jordan pas cher[/url] geological stratigraphic relationships at many locales are tenuous. The age of the Happisburg glacial beds is a vital component in the reconstruction of early hominid prehistory in Southern Britain. Harrisburg site 3, which was exposed by coastal erosion, is located along the Norfolk shoreline, within the East Anglian Crag Basin. The Cramer Forest Red Formation [CFRF] underlying the Happisburg tills contains cultural material.
The Happisburg glacial till post-dates the Bruhes-Matuyama palaeomagnetic reversal [ca780Ka ago during OIS19] and pre-dates the Lowestaft Formation till [OIS 12], which conformably [?] overlies the Happisburg glacial beds at a number of outcrops. It has been proposed [url=http://www.jeremyparendt.com/Barbour-Paris.php]barbour france paris[/url] on, the basis of microtine rodent analyses, that the Happisburg tills post-date OSL 15, because the remains of vole, Arvicola terrestris contina are preserved in the organic material underlying the Happisburg till at Norfolk [Banham, 2001].European analyses record the presence of these voles two glaciations prior to OSL 12.The Happisburg tills might have been emplaced during OSL 14 [ca562-531Ka]. This would date the underlying cfbf beds, which contain stone tools and Arvicola, to OSL 15, when there "might" have been relatively brief eras of warmth rather than a full scale interglacial episode [Stuart, 2000]. There is a possibility that the Happisburg tills were deposited during OIS 16 [ca 652-617Ka]. Preece [2001] contends that an OIS 16 age for the Happisburg tills was not compatible with the [url=http://www.lcdmo.com/hollister.php]hollister france[/url] early Middle Palaeolithic vertebrate and mollusc.
Prior to the OSL 12 glaciation, the ancestral Thames River entered the region via the Vale of St Albans and the ancient Bythlam River flowed through the English Midlands. The presence of three types of chert at the Happisburg site 3 in beds D and E could imply influences from both fluvial systems. Bed E contained 74 flint artifacts in the cfbf sediments. The lithic inventory is comprised of flakes, cores and flake tools. There were no hand axes in Bed E. The approach to flake tool manufacture appears to have been ad hoc, which "may" suggest Mode 1[?] stone tools. Hominids visited site 3 more than once. The estuarine bed E sediments contained flora and fauna remains, that are compatible with a change from a temperate to cooler climate conditions. The remains of aquatic plants and high Poace values could infer the proximal presence of extensive grasslands [a fluvial flood plain?]. The presence of grazers, browsers and mixed feeders indicates a rich, diverse habitat [S Parfitt,2010]. The early inhabitants of Southern Britain lived in a pleasant environment, with abundant natural resources.
S Parfitt [2005] reported the discovery of 32 worked flints at Pakefield, Suffolk, from four contexts within the cfbf beds. Similar tools at Westbourne were tentatively redated to ca600[?]Ka [C Stringer, 2003]. Excavations at Thetford, Norfolk, recovered hand axes, more than a 100 pieces of flint and mammoth bones, that were cut by flint tools ca600?KA [D Miles, 2002].The Waverley Wood Farm Pit site at Biddenhall, Warwickshire, pre-dates OSL 12 and lies within the ancient Bytham River valley. Excavations have yielded quartzite hand axes, flakes, andesite bifaces and flint axes [D Keen, 2006]. Flint sources were distal to the east and south of Waverley Wood. Beetle species indicated fluctuating climatic conditions. The vole, Arivola, is associated with the lithic artifacts, which infers a minimal age of OSL 13 [ibid]. Archaeological [url=http://yszysp.com/news/html/?46862.html]jordan Town House Property Investments - written by Russell Dale[/url] investigations have identified five sites with OSL 13 cultural material [eg: High Lodge] on the ancient Bytham River flood plain [J McNabb, 2007].By OIS 13 the hominid population of Southern Britain was larger.
The Boxgrove [url=http://www.weilikx.com/viewthread.php?tid=23059&extra=]abercrombie milano The Great Wall of China Losing the Greatness - written by Sus[/url] site in West Sussex is located at the intersection of a chalk escarpment and a low coastal plain, that fringes the English Channel. Abundant natural resources [eg; feral game and good quality flint] attracted hunter-gatherers to the region during OIS 13 [ca500-474Ka]. A human tibia and two teeth were recovered. The tibia, which is the earliest hominid fossil found in southern Britain, belonged to a robust, 40 year old male about 1.8m tall, [url=http://www.mxitcms.com/abercrombie/]abercrombie milano[/url] who was provisionally classified as Homo heidelbergenian. Dense tool concentrations imply frequent use of the more than ninety sites in the immediate region. Archaeological investigations retrieved numerous rough outs, which bear some relationship to finished bifaces [Roberts,1999].
A Thames River gravel bed at Swanscombe yielded [1935-1964] three fragments from the back of a woman's braincase. The inside was protected by thick bone. It shows blood vessels around the brain and folding of the brain surface. Her brain was not radically different from that of Homo sapiens. The 25-30 year old woman had a ca1355 cc brain size, which approximates current endocranial capacities. She died sometime between 400 and 225?Ka. the chronology is conjectural. The short, flat parietal bones are reminiscent of Steinheim woman and the Neanderthal Saccopastre. There is not sufficient frontal bone to provide information about her brow ridge. The middle of the occipital bone of Swanscombe has a small pit. The pit is at the attachment of the neck muscles. The function of this suprainic fossa has not been ascertained [C Stringer, 2006].
Suprainic fossa are rare in Homo sapiens, but have been observed in many Neanderthal fossils, Steinheim woman and a number of Iberian Sima de los Huesos remains. Swanscombe woman combines a Neanderthal type suprainic area, that has a highly convex upper occipital scale, with a rounded posterior skull [ibid]. The presence of [url=http://www.jeremyparendt.com/Hollister-b5.php]hollister france[/url] a number of cranial traits, that are associated with Neanderthals, "might" imply an early stage of transition.
Below the gravel beds, that contained the back of the Swanscombe braincase and numerous [url=http://www.moncleroutletosterblade.com]moncler[/url] hand axes, lies the Lower Loam. There are hominid footprints and Clactonian tools from the early OIS 11 interglacial era. The hand axes are similar to the French and African Acheulean specimens. The lower layer contained primitive "Clacton" flakes and choppers. A wooden spear at the Clacton site was provisionally dated to ca400-200Ka [C Stringer, 2006].Ca400?Ka ago hunters chased an elephant into a bog near Ebbsfleet, Kent. They butchered it with small, razor sharp, stone flakes and blades similar to Clacton tools. Ebbsfleet is 1,6km from the Swanscombe site M White, 2006].
An Acheulean age nest of about 200 Porosphaera globularis [Pg] special marine calcareous sponges was found at Biddenham, Bedfordshire [J Wyatt, 1862]and another nest was recovered near Bedford [Smith 1884]. Some had black organic matter and "possible" abrasions close to the holes. Smith and Marshack [1991] magnified some orifices and concluded that they were modified by hominids. Pg from Biddenham [2] and Bedford [3] have continuous micro-chipping around the holes, which removed parts of the original, pristine surface [Rignaud, nd]. Acheulean Age hominids in Southern Britain "may" have strung Pg necklaces.
There is a dearth of early OIS 12 sites in the Thames valley, when the colder temperatures probably forced hunter-gatherers to migrate to warmer refugia. By the end of OIS 12 [ca427Ka] people had begun to exploit the middle Thames valley and its tributaries. At Hampstead Marshall in the Kennet valley and adjacent territories more than 20 "rolled" hand axes were retrieved, which could imply pre-Clactonian origins. During the warmer OIS 11 period there was considerable diversity in the environments that hunter-gatherers exploited in southern Britain. N Ashton [2000] postulated that the Hoxne site, East Anglia, was utilized during an OIS 11 cold phase or during the OIS 10 [ca358-336KA] glacial era. Some of the stone tools, excepting flakes and debitage, at Hoxne were not radically different from those at Swanscombe and Clacton. In portions of the Thames River valley and at other locales it can be difficult to differentiate between OIS 11 and OIS 9 interglacial sites. Between the OIS 10/9 and the commencement of OIS 8 glaciation [url=http://www.shewyne.com/woolrichoutlet.html]woolrich outlet[/url] there appears to have been a reduction in the number of sites in southern Britain and the stone tool assemblages tended to be more variable [S [url=http://www.gotprintsigns.com/abercrombiepascher/‎]abercrombie pas cher[/url] McNabb, 2007].
Levallois lithic tool technology, with its distinct weapon component, which revolutionized hunting strategies in Southern Britain, gained gradual acceptance during and after OIS 8 [ca275-252KA]. At many sites there were limited hand axes with Levallois assemblages. To a degree Levallois technology might have usurped the role of hand axes [J McNabb, 2007].
Pontnewyold cave in northern Wales was probably utilized post ca252Ka during the warmer OIS 7 episode. The stone tool inventory consisted of 50 relatively small, crude. Pointed, hand axes. There was a paucity of good quality, local lithic material. Some of the tools were heated. Lower jaw fragments and 17 teeth from at least five individuals were recovered from the cave. The fossil fragments exhibit a few Neanderthal type features and several teeth exhibit taurodontism , which was common among [url=http://www.rtnagel.com/airjordan.php]nike air jordan pas cher[/url] Neanderthals [F Pyror, 2003]. This could represent a gradual trend towards "Neanderthalization" [C Stringer, 2006].
There is minimal evidence of a human presence in southern Britain during the OIS 6 [ca186-131Ka] glacial era and the OIS 5 [ca131-70Ka] interglacial period. Prior to the OIS 7a [ca205-186Ka] warm episode a chalk ridge connected mainland Europe to southern Britain, when sea levels were high. Sonar studies by S Gupta [2007] suggest that this ridge was breached twice ca200Ka by huge torrents of water, which had amassed on its northern flank. In addition to severing the land bridge, the breach provided a conduit for the Channel River to flow south along the emergent English Channel during low sea level. This fluvial system was up to 10km wide, with a maximum depth of about 50m. Without water craft, it became more difficult to access Britain from Europe after ca200KA. Neanderthals could have trekked across Doggerland, when it was emergent. Collation of the available data suggests, that relatively low numbers of Neanderthals probably roamed across Southern Britain in small bands during the OIS 5 interglacial era [S McNabb, 2007].
During the early OIS 3 [ca55-27Ka] interglacial period a larger [url=http://www.jordanpascherofficiele.com]air jordan[/url] number of Neanderthals appear to have ranged extensively through Southern Britain [eg; Lynford Quarry,Norfolk, ca67-64+/-Ka; Robin Hood cave, Cresswell Crags, ca55Ka]. Provisional OIS 3 climate reconstructions imply that weather conditions were highly variable regionally and temporally [M White,2006].There is no definite evidence of long term occupation at any of the twenty OIS 3 sites that have been investigated in southern Britain. It was during the latter half of OIS 3 that Homo sapiens arrived in Southern Britain.
A right human maxillary fragment with worn teeth was retrieved from Kent's cavern, England. Analysis of the teeth revealed thirteen anatomically human characteristics, three traits with Neanderthal affinities and seven others were ambiguous. Ultra-filtered bone collagen from a stratified sequence in the cave was dated to ca42240-39590 BCE [all subsequent ages calibrated]. T Higham [2011] contends that the maxilla belongs to a Homo sapiens. It might be a hybrid [speculation]. Homo sapiens appear to have arrived in Southern Britain about 40000 BCE.
The partial fossil remains of a 28-30 year old male with funerary items, which were recovered from Goats Hole, Paviland, 30km east of the Gower Peninsula, Wales, have been dated to ca32045-31425 BCE.A significant portion of the 5000 lithic items have been classified as "evolved Aurignacian" Goats Hole appears to have been used on a number of occasions [R Jacobi,2008]. The funerary items have affinities with Gravettian artifacts at Sungir, Russia, and Dolni Veston, Croatia [S Aldhouse-Green, 1998]. The early Homo sapiens low level occupation of Southern Britain was terminated by the last glacial maximum, when ice sheets covered Britain and Ireland except for the most southerly regions.
Glaciation in Southern Britain ended rather abruptly ca15650 BCE. Cultural material at Cresswell Crags infers a sporadic presence by hunter-gatherers from ca13000-10800 BCE. Uranium series dates for the thin limestone crusts on the cave art average ca10800 BCE [A Pike, 2005]. Artifacts in Nottinghamshire and near Haverford West, SW Wales, were made ca12750BCE [G Smith, nd]. A modified bone at Gough's cave has been tentatively dated to ca13400 BCE. During this era hunter-gatherers in Southern Britain were probably relatively mobile and [url=http://www.dcfaceone.com/forum.php?mod=viewthread&tid=8867984]peuterey outlet 3 Points To Delve Into While Buying Investment Gold In Any Form[/url] trekked long distances in the pursuit of feral game [eg; deer, horses etc]. Competition among the relatively low density population was probably minimal, because there were large expanses of vacant land [R Jacobi, 2008]. Except for the Cresswell cave rock art, there are no indications of a significant proliferation of artistic endeavours in Southern Britain prior to the Younger Dryas [ca10800-9700 BCE; G Mullah, 2007]. Immediately before the Younger Dryas there was an increase in open air sites in the south as people [url=http://www.shewyne.com/moncleroutlet.html]moncler outlet[/url] moved away from the north to escape the colder weather conditions.
The population of Southern Britain appears to have undergone a significant contraction during the cold, dry Younger Dryas. There was a pronounced decline in the number of archaeological sites that were utilized. This trend was rapidly reversed, when the temperatures improved dramatically ca9650 BCE. Archaeological investigations have identified fifteen sites around palaeo-Lake Flixton, Yorkshire, where hunter-foragers exploited the natural wetland resources from ca9600-7750 BCE. Mesolithic foragers frequented the river catchment areas of Wales, as the expanding population spread across Southern Britain in search of natural resources. There was an appreciable increase in the number of sites from ca9000-8400 BCE. The Birkshire, Thatcham site on a lacustrine shoreline is broadly coeval with the Star Carr and Deepcar sites. It yielded more than 18000 flint artifacts during two periods of occupation. The densities of cultural material at the above locales is compatible with longer periods of habitation as foragers exploited the abundant wetland resources [C Talon-Smith, 2010].
As the climate moderated after 9650 BCE new flora and fauna appeared in Southern Britain. Hunting practices and lithic technologies were adapted to cope with the environmental changes. The use of the bow and arrow by hunters became more prevalent, the flake adze was developed to cut wood and antler mattocks functioned as diggers. Exploitation of woodland resources gained momentum and people began to utilize the inland water ways to greater extent. The ruins of a few ancient dwellings have been excavated. One at Howick, Northumberland, was erected ca7800 BCE and was used for about one hundred and fifty years [T Darvill, 2010]. At the Star Carr site near Scarborough, Yorkshire, which was visited seasonally [?] by [url=http://www.jeremyparendt.com/Hollister-b5.php]hollister[/url] less mobile hunter gatherers for 200-500 years, a 3.5m diameter circular dwelling was constructed ca8500 BCE by an ancient lake [C Conneller, 2010]. During this era large tracts of emergent North Sea/English Channel land were habitable. Underwater archaeological trainees located the ruins of two hamlets of the coast of Tynemouth, England. The distal one dates to ca8000-6500 BCE [P Spikens, 2003]. As the sea rose the people moved inland, which could have created more competition for land. Britain became separate from the European mainland ca6500 BCE [chronology tenuous].
On the Bristol Channel shoreline by the Mendip Hills the fossilized footprints of hunters and animal tracks are exposed at low tide. An entire family stalked feral game ca8000-7000 BCE. The DNA of "Cheddar Man" [ca7000 BCE] from Gough's cave indicated a genetic link with the extant populace of Cheddar [A Moffat, 2005]. Aveline Hole cave in the Mendip Hills yielded the fossils of 70-110 humans , which were interred ca8400-8200 BCE, without grave goods. The remains of a hearth "could imply" ritual interments [P Marshall, 2004]. There are no indications of human habitation. Caves might have been deemed to be the entrance to the inner world. Some Mesolithic human bones have been found in middens and others were committed to water. Rites of passage varied regionally and temporally [C Conneller, 2006]. Many individuals may not have had a formal burial. Water had a symbolic significance to Mesolithic hunter-gatherers in Southern Britain. Numerous caches of votive offerings have been found in lakes and rivers [T Collins, 2003]. These societies seem to have been less complex than their counterparts on mainland Europe, where there was more competition for natural resources and land [R Chatterton, 2006].
Post ca6500 BCE there was a gradual overall reduction in mobility among an appreciable portion of the population. There are indications of the evolution of regional tool manufacturing traditions and the development of intergroup exchange networks [T Darvill, 2010]. Ca6000 BCE the range of resources, which were exploited by individual sites increased. Ice core studies imply unstable climatic conditions from ca5500-4000 BCE in Southern Britain, which combined with the isolation of Britain by rising sea levels, reduced the impact of mainland European influences. The western flow of technological innovations slowed, until new maritime links were foraged by more sea worthy water craft during more moderate climatic conditions. Ca5000-4000 BCE the Thames River valley was covered by mixed deciduous woodland, with clearings that were often frequented by hunter-gatherers. Significant activity occurred on the high ground. Ca4200 BCE Neolithic farming was introduced to Southern Britain.
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